THEORIES
OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOUR
Human development and behaviour
are complex phenomena that have been the subject of study and theorization for
many decades. Numerous theories have been proposed to understand how
individuals grow, change, and behave in different stages of life. This study
note explores several influential theories of human development and behaviour:
1. Freud's
Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud's
psychosexual theory posits that human development is primarily driven by
unconscious desires and conflicts.
Sigmund Freud, the Austrian
neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, developed a comprehensive theory of
human development known as the Psychosexual Theory. This theory posits that
human development is primarily driven by unconscious desires, conflicts, and
the interaction between different aspects of one's personality. Freud divided
the development of personality into five distinct stages, each associated with
a particular erogenous zone:
1. Oral Stage (0 to 18 months)
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
Key Concepts:
·
Infants derive pleasure from oral activities,
such as sucking, biting, and feeding.
·
This stage is critical for developing trust and
attachment to the caregiver.
·
Fixation at this stage can lead to oral related
issues in adulthood, such as overeating, smoking, or excessive talking.
2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
Erogenous Zone: Anus
Key
Concepts:
·
Pleasure comes from controlling bowel movements
and toilet training.
·
Conflict arises during toilet training, leading
to a sense of autonomy or shame and doubt.
·
Fixation can result in anal retentive (overly
neat and organized) or anal expulsive (disorganized and messy) personality
traits.
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Key
Concepts:
·
The focus shifts to sexual pleasure, and
children develop curiosity about their own and others' genitalia.
·
The Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex
(girls) emerge, involving sexual attraction to the opposite sex parent and
rivalry with the same sex parent.
·
Successful resolution of these conflicts is
crucial for healthy psychological development.
4. Latency Stage (6years to puberty)
Erogenous Zone: Dormant
Key Concepts:
·
Sexual desires and conflicts are latent during
this period.
·
Children focus on developing social and
intellectual skills, such as peer relationships and learning.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards)
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Key Concepts:
·
Mature sexual interests and relationships
emerge.
·
Individuals seek out romantic relationships, and
healthy development at this stage is dependent on successful resolution of
previous conflicts.
Key
Terms:
Id: The primitive, unconscious
part of the mind that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate
gratification of desires and instincts.
Ego: The rational, conscious part
of the mind that mediates between the id and the external world, seeking to
meet the id's desires in socially acceptable ways.
Superego: The moral conscience,
representing societal and parental values and norms. It seeks to suppress the
id's impulsive desires.
Criticisms and Controversies:
1. Lack of Empirical Evidence:
Many of Freud's concepts are difficult to test empirically, making his theory
challenging to validate through scientific research.
2. Sexuality Emphasis: Critics
argue that Freud's theory places excessive emphasis on sexual development and conflicts.
3. Gender Bias: The theory has
been criticized for being male centric, and it doesn't adequately address
female development and experiences.
4. Cultural and Historical Bias:
Some aspects of the theory are influenced by the cultural and historical
context in which Freud lived.
Despite these criticisms,
Freud's Psychosexual Theory has had a significant influence on the field of
psychology and continues to be studied and debated. It laid the foundation for
modern psychoanalysis and provided valuable insights into the role of early
experiences in shaping personality and behaviour.
2.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Erik
Erikson extended Freud's ideas by introducing a psychosocial theory that
emphasizes the social and cultural aspects of development. He identified eight
stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a unique
developmental crisis:
1.
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy,0 to 1 year):
· The
central conflict is establishing trust in the world, primarily through the
caregiver's reliability.
· Successful
resolution results in a sense of trust and confidence, while failure can lead
to feelings of insecurity and mistrust.
2.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1 to 3 years):
· Children
develop a sense of autonomy as they explore and assert their independence.
· A
balance must be struck between allowing autonomy and setting appropriate
limits.
· Overly
restrictive parenting can lead to shame and doubt.
3.
Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3 to 6 years):
· Children
begin to take the initiative in play and learning.
· They
explore their environment, ask questions, and express their curiosity.
· Excessive
criticism or punishment can result in guilt and a fear of taking initiative.
4.
Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary School, 6 to 12 years):
· The
focus is on developing a sense of competence through mastering new skills and
knowledge.
· Positive
reinforcement and encouragement are crucial for a child's self-esteem.
· Failure
to develop a sense of competence may lead to feelings of inferiority.
5.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12 to18 years):
· Adolescents
seek to establish their identity by exploring various roles and values.
· The
central conflict is the development of a stable self-concept.
· Confusion
and a lack of identity can result from the inability to resolve this crisis.
6.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18 to 40 years):
· Young
adults aim to form meaningful and lasting relationships, including romantic
partnerships.
· Successful
resolution leads to intimacy, while failure can result in social isolation and
loneliness.
7.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40 to 65 years):
· Individuals
seek to contribute to the wellbeing of future generations, whether through
parenting, mentoring, or other forms of productivity.
· A
lack of productivity or generativity may lead to feelings of stagnation.
8.
Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years):
· This
stage involves reflecting on one's life and finding a sense of fulfilment.
· Individuals
who feel satisfied with their life experiences and accomplishments develop
integrity, while those who feel regret and disappointment may experience
despair.
These
stages are not strictly tied to specific age ranges, as individuals may
progress through them at different rates. Furthermore, successful resolution of
earlier stages can contribute to healthier development in subsequent stages.
Erikson's theory emphasizes the importance of psychosocial development
throughout the lifespan and the ongoing potential for growth and change.
3. Piaget's
Cognitive Development Theory
Jean Piaget's cognitive
development theory focuses on how individuals acquire knowledge and develop
cognitive abilities. Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory is a seminal
framework in the field of developmental psychology. This theory outlines the
stages and processes through which children develop their cognitive abilities,
including how they think, learn, and understand the world around them. Piaget's
theory has had a profound influence on education, child psychology, and our
understanding of human development.
Key
Concepts:
1.
Schemas:
· Piaget
proposed that individuals construct mental structures called schemas to
organize and make sense of the world.
· Schemas
are frameworks for understanding various aspects of the environment and can
range from simple to complex.
2.
Assimilation:
· This
process occurs when new information or experiences are incorporated into
existing schemas.
· Children
assimilate new knowledge by fitting it into their pre-existing mental
frameworks.
3.
Accommodation:
· Accommodation
involves modifying existing schemas to adapt to new information or experiences.
· When
new information cannot be assimilated into existing schemas, individuals must
change their mental structures to accommodate the new knowledge.
4.
Equilibration:
· Equilibration
is the process of achieving cognitive balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
· It
is a dynamic process in which individuals continually adjust their schemas to
maintain cognitive equilibrium.
5.
Cognitive Development Stages:
Piaget
identified four main stages of cognitive development that individuals progress
through in a fixed sequence:
a. Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2 years):
Focus on sensory experiences, object permanence, and motor skills.
b. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Development
of symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and limited understanding of conservation.
c. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11
years): Improved logical thinking, understanding of
conservation, and classification abilities.
d. Formal Operational Stage (11+ years):
Abstract thinking, hypothesis testing, and advanced problem solving skills.
6.
Object Permanence:
· This
concept refers to a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even when
they are out of sight.
· Object
permanence typically develops during the sensorimotor stage.
7.
Conservation:
· Conservation
refers to the idea that certain properties of objects (e.g., volume, mass)
remain the same despite changes in appearance.
· Children
in the concrete operational stage begin to grasp the concept of conservation.
Implications
and Criticisms:
1.
Educational Applications:
Piaget's
theory has influenced pedagogy by emphasizing the importance of active learning
and hands on experiences for children at different developmental stages.
2.
Developmental Milestones:
Piaget's
stages provide a framework for understanding and tracking developmental
milestones in children.
3.
Criticisms:
· Some
critics argue that Piaget may have underestimated children's abilities and
overlooked cultural and individual differences.
· More
recent research has suggested that cognitive development is more continuous
than Piaget's discrete stages.
Conclusion:
Jean
Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory has significantly contributed to our
understanding of how children acquire knowledge, think, and adapt to their
environment. While his theory has faced criticisms, it remains a foundational
framework for studying cognitive development and shaping educational practices.
By emphasizing the role of schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and the
developmental stages, Piaget's theory has had a lasting impact on psychology
and education.
4. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Introduction:
Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory, also known
as Social Learning Theory, is a prominent psychological framework that
emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in learning and behavior. Bandura's
theory offers a comprehensive understanding of how individuals acquire new
behaviors, attitudes, and skills through observation, imitation, and the
interplay between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors.
Key
Concepts:
1.
Observational Learning:
· Observational
learning, often referred to as modelling or imitation, is a fundamental aspect
of Bandura's theory. It suggests that individuals can learn from others by
observing their actions, behaviors, and the consequences of those actions.
· Observational
learning is a cognitive process that involves attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation. Attention is focused on the model's behavior,
retention involves storing the observed behavior in memory, reproduction is the
individual's attempt to replicate the behavior, and motivation pertains to the
perceived rewards or punishments associated with the behavior.
2.
Self-Efficacy:
· Self-efficacy
is a central concept in Bandura's theory, referring to an individual's belief
in their ability to perform specific tasks or achieve certain goals. Higher self-efficacy
leads to increased motivation and perseverance in pursuing objectives.
· Self-efficacy
is influenced by four primary sources: mastery experiences (successes and
failures), vicarious experiences (observing others), social persuasion
(encouragement or discouragement from others), and physiological and emotional
states.
3.
Reciprocal Determinism:
· Bandura
proposed a dynamic interaction between personal factors, behavior, and the environment.
This reciprocal determinism suggests that these three factors continually
influence and shape one another.
· For
instance, an individual's behavior can affect their environment, and the
environment can, in turn, impact an individual's behavior and cognitive
processes. This interplay underscores the idea that human behavior is not a one
way street but rather a complex interconnection of variables.
4.
Self-Regulation:
· Bandura's
theory emphasizes the role of self-regulation in human behavior. Self-regulation
involves monitoring one's thoughts, emotions, and actions and using cognitive
strategies to control and adapt behavior.
· Self-regulation
is vital for maintaining social and moral standards, setting and achieving
personal goals, and adapting to different situations. It involves self-control,
self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement.
5.
Moral Disengagement:
· Bandura
also introduced the concept of moral disengagement, which describes the
cognitive processes individuals use to justify or rationalize morally
questionable actions.
· People
may disengage from their moral standards by using mechanisms such as moral
justification, euphemistic labelling, and diffusion of responsibility to avoid
personal responsibility for their actions.
Applications:
1.
Education:
Bandura's
theory has been applied to various educational settings. Teachers can use modelling
and positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors in students.
The concept
of self - efficacy is particularly relevant in education, as it influences
students' beliefs about their ability to succeed in school.
2.
Health Psychology:
Social
Cognitive Theory has been employed in health promotion and behavior change. It
helps in understanding how individuals can develop selfefficacy and motivation
to make healthier choices and adopt positive health behaviors.
3.
Psychology of Aggression and Violence:
The concept
of moral disengagement in Bandura's theory is often used to explain how
individuals can rationalize aggressive or violent behaviors, shedding light on
the psychology behind actions like bullying and criminal behavior.
Conclusion:
Bandura's
Social Cognitive Theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding
how individuals learn, develop self- beliefs, and regulate their behavior. It
highlights the importance of observational learning, selfefficacy, and
reciprocal determinism in shaping human actions and provides valuable insights
into a wide range of fields, including education, health, and psychology.
5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Introduction:
Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow in the
1940s and 50s. It presents a hierarchical model of human needs, with the basic
physiological needs at the bottom and higher level psychological needs at the
top. The theory suggests that individuals are motivated to satisfy these needs
in a specific order.
Key
Concepts:
1.
Physiological Needs (Bottom Tier):
· These
are the most basic human needs necessary for survival, such as food, water,
air, shelter, and sleep.
· Until
these needs are met, individuals are primarily motivated by their desire to
fulfill them. Once satisfied, they no longer act as strong motivators.
2.
Safety Needs (Second Tier):
· Once
physiological needs are met, individuals seek safety and security. This
includes physical safety, financial stability, health, and protection from
harm.
· This
level of need encompasses the desire for order and predictability in one's
life.
3.
Love and Belonging Needs (Third Tier):
· This
tier focuses on social needs, such as love, friendship, and a sense of
belonging. Humans are inherently social beings and seek meaningful
relationships.
· The
absence of love and belonging can lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation.
4.
Esteem Needs (Fourth Tier):
· Esteem
needs include the desire for self- respect, self -esteem, and respect from
others. It involves recognition, achievement, and a sense of competence.
· Fulfilling
these needs leads to a sense of self -worth and confidence.
5.
Self - Actualization (Top Tier):
· Self
-actualization is the highest level of need in Maslow's hierarchy. It
represents the realization of one's full potential and the pursuit of personal
growth and fulfilment.
· Achieving
self -actualization means realizing one's unique talents, creativity, and
becoming the best version of oneself.
Applications:
1.
Psychology and Counselling:
Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs is used in clinical psychology and counselling to understand
and address various psychological issues. Therapists may focus on identifying
which level of need is unmet and work with clients to address those needs.
2.
Management and Leadership:
In the
context of leadership and management, this theory can be applied to motivate
employees. Managers can recognize and fulfil employees' needs for recognition,
belonging, and self - esteem, leading to improved job satisfaction and
performance.
3.
Education:
Educators
can use Maslow's theory to understand the importance of creating a safe and
supportive learning environment. When students feel their lower level needs are
met, they can better focus on higher order thinking and self -actualization.
Conclusion:
Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs provides a valuable framework for understanding human
motivation and behavior. It emphasizes the importance of addressing lowerlevel
needs before progressing to higher level ones and has applications in various
fields, helping individuals and organizations meet their potential and thrive.
6. Skinner's Behaviorism
1.
Overview of B.F. Skinner:
· B.F.
Skinner (19041990) was an influential American psychologist and behaviorist.
· He
is best known for his work on operant conditioning, which is a type of learning
that focuses on the consequences of behavior.
2.
Operant Conditioning:
· Operant
conditioning is a learning process where behavior is shaped by its
consequences.
· Skinner
proposed that the behavior of an organism is determined by the environmental
consequences it experiences.
· In
operant conditioning, behavior can be reinforced (strengthened) or punished
(weakened) based on the outcomes it produces.
3.
Basic Principles:
Reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement involves providing a reward or positive consequence
after a behavior to increase its likelihood of recurrence. Negative
reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen behavior.
Punishment:
Positive punishment involves applying an aversive stimulus to decrease a
behavior, while negative punishment involves taking away a positive stimulus to
weaken behavior.
Extinction: This occurs when a behavior
decreases in frequency because it is no longer reinforced.
Schedules of reinforcement: Skinner
studied various schedules, including fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval,
and variable interval schedules, to understand how they affect behavior.
4.
Skinner's Experimental Apparatus:
· Skinner
developed the "Skinner box," a controlled environment where he could
study the behavior of animals like rats and pigeons.
· This
apparatus allowed him to systematically manipulate reinforcement and punishment
to observe their effects on behavior.
5.
Contributions and Criticisms:
Contributions:
· Skinner's
work laid the foundation for the field of behaviorism and contributed to our
understanding of learning and behavior modification.
· His
ideas have practical applications in education, parenting, and therapy.
Criticisms:
· Some
critics argue that Skinner's behaviorism oversimplifies human behavior by
ignoring cognitive processes.
· Ethical
concerns have been raised regarding the use of punishment in behavior modification.
6.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA):
· Skinner's
principles are central to the development of Applied Behavior Analysis, which
is a therapeutic approach often used to treat individuals with autism and other
developmental disorders.
· ABA
aims to modify behavior through systematic assessment, reinforcement, and data driven
decision making.
7.
Radical Behaviorism:
Skinner's
approach is sometimes referred to as "radical behaviorism" because it
emphasizes the study of observable behavior and eschews explanations based on
mental states or internal processes.
8.
Verbal Behavior:
· Skinner
also extended his principles to the study of language and communication in his
book "Verbal Behavior."
· He
proposed that language could be analyzed as a form of behavior, shaped by
environmental contingencies.
In
summary, B.F. Skinner's behaviorism, with its focus on operant conditioning,
reinforcement, and punishment, has had a significant impact on the fields of
psychology, education, and therapy. His work continues to be influential in
understanding and modifying human and animal behavior.
7. Vygotsky's Sociocultural
Theory
1.
Overview of Lev Vygotsky:
· Lev
Vygotsky (18961934) was a Russian psychologist and a prominent figure in
developmental psychology.
· His
sociocultural theory focuses on the role of social interaction and cultural
context in cognitive development.
2.
Social Interaction and Cognitive Development:
· Vygotsky
emphasized the importance of social interaction in shaping cognitive
development.
· He
argued that learning and cognitive growth occur through interactions with
others who are more knowledgeable or experienced, known as the "Zone of
Proximal Development" (ZPD).
3.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
· ZPD
is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can
achieve with support.
· The
ZPD is a dynamic concept, as it changes as the learner develops and acquires
new skills.
· Social
interactions and guidance from a more knowledgeable person (such as a teacher
or peer) are crucial in moving a learner through their ZPD.
4.
Scaffolding:
· Scaffolding
is the support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a learner in
their ZPD.
· This
support can be gradually reduced as the learner becomes more capable, allowing
them to take on more responsibility for their own learning.
5.
Cultural Tools and Mediation:
· Vygotsky
emphasized that cultural tools, such as language, symbols, and technologies,
play a central role in cognitive development.
· These
cultural tools mediate a person's thinking and problem solving processes,
influencing their perception of the world.
6.
The Role of Language:
· Language
is a key cultural tool in Vygotsky's theory.
· It
serves both as a means of communication and as a tool for thought, enabling
individuals to internalize external social interactions.
7.
Private Speech:
· Vygotsky
observed that young children often engage in private speech, talking to
themselves while solving problems or engaging in tasks.
· He
saw this as a way for children to self - regulate and internalize external
social guidance.
8.
Cultural Historical Context:
· Vygotsky's
theory places a strong emphasis on the cultural and historical context in which
development occurs.
· Cultural
norms, values, and practices shape an individual's cognitive development.
9.
Criticisms and Contributions:
Contributions:
· Vygotsky's
sociocultural theory has had a significant impact on education, emphasizing the
importance of social interaction, scaffolding, and cultural context in
learning.
· It
has influenced the development of educational approaches like collaborative
learning and the use of peer tutoring.
Criticisms:
· Critics
argue that Vygotsky's theory doesn't pay enough attention to individual
differences and the role of biology in development.
· It
is less clear on the specific mechanisms of cognitive development compared to
other theories.
In
summary, Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stresses the crucial role of
social interaction, cultural context, and the Zone of Proximal Development in
shaping cognitive development. It highlights the significance of cultural tools
and mediation, such as language, in the development of higher mental functions.
Vygotsky's ideas have left a lasting impact on the fields of psychology and
education.
8. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
1.
Overview of Lawrence Kohlberg:
· Lawrence
Kohlberg (19271987) was an American psychologist known for his ground breaking
work on moral development.
· His
theory focused on how individuals develop their moral reasoning and ethical
thinking.
2.
Stages of Moral Development:
Kohlberg
proposed a six stage theory of moral development, grouped into three levels:
Level I: Pre conventional Morality
Stage 1:
Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Moral decisions are based on avoiding punishment and following rules.
Stage 2:
Individualism and Exchange Moral
decisions are guided by selfinterest and reciprocity.
Level II: Conventional Morality
Stage 3:
Interpersonal Relationships Moral
decisions are influenced by social approval and maintaining good relationships.
Stage 4:
Maintaining Social Order Moral decisions
are based on following established societal norms and laws.
Level III: Post conventional Morality
Stage 5:
Social Contract and Individual Rights
Moral decisions consider the broader societal perspective and individual
rights.
Stage 6:
Universal Principles Moral decisions are
guided by universal ethical principles, such as justice, equality, and human
rights.
3.
Progression through Stages:
· Kohlberg
proposed that individuals progress through these stages in a fixed order.
· Advancement
is driven by cognitive development and exposure to moral dilemmas that
challenge existing moral thinking.
4.
Moral Dilemmas:
· Kohlberg's
research often used moral dilemmas, such as the Heinz dilemma, to assess an
individual's stage of moral development.
· These
dilemmas typically present conflicts between individual needs and societal
norms or ethical principles.
5.
Criticisms and Contributions:
Contributions:
· Kohlberg's
theory provided a framework for understanding the development of moral
reasoning in individuals.
· It
emphasized the importance of cognitive processes and moral dilemmas in moral
development.
Criticisms:
· Some
critics argue that Kohlberg's theory is overly focused on cognitive aspects and
doesn't adequately address emotional and social factors in moral development.
· Cultural
biases have been identified in the theory, as it was primarily developed based
on research with Western subjects.
6.
Application of the Theory:
· Kohlberg's
theory has been influential in the fields of education and psychology.
· It
has been used to inform moral education and character development programs,
emphasizing the importance of moral reasoning.
7.
Moral Education:
· Kohlberg
advocated for moral education that promotes higher level moral reasoning.
· He
believed that fostering moral development required encouraging individuals to
engage in moral discussions and consider ethical dilemmas.
In
summary, Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development outlines a six stage
progression of moral reasoning, emphasizing the role of cognitive development
and exposure to moral dilemmas. While his theory has been influential in the
field of moral education, it has also faced criticisms regarding its focus on
cognitive aspects and cultural biases.
